Moving to Tennessee, Nashville, Knoxville, Chattanooga,
Memphis
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Tennessee, a southeastern state, stretches about 770 km
(480 mi) from the Appalachian Mountains in the east to the Mississippi
River in the west. It is bounded by Kentucky and Virginia on the north;
North Carolina on the east; Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi on the south;
and Arkansas and Missouri on the west. Tennessee was named for the great
river that cuts through the state, although the meaning of the word Tennessee
is unknown. From its rough frontier origins Tennessee played an important
role in the nation's history even before statehood in 1796. Tennessee
gained its nickname, The Volunteer State, from the large numbers of soldiers
it sent to the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Mexican War, and
the Civil War. Today Tennessee is a prosperous state, with much industrial
and agricultural potential.
LAND AND RESOURCES
The state's land surface rolls and tumbles under a variety of climates
and vegetation, which mark the three traditional divisions of its territory
into East, Middle, and West Tennessee. East Tennessee extends from the
Great Smoky Mountains across a series of elongated ridges and valleys
into the Cumberland Plateau. In Middle Tennessee the Nashville Basin is
rimmed by a heavily carved upland, and West Tennessee contains the Coastal
Plain and the Mississippi Bottoms.
The physical environment is extremely varied. The Great Smoky Mountains
rise to elevations exceeding 1,830 m (6,000 ft), and the range is among
the oldest on Earth. Clingmans Dome, at 2,025 m (6,643 ft), is the highest
point in Tennessee and the second-highest point east of the Mississippi
River. To the west of this mountain range the Ridge and Valley Province
consists of layers of limestone, sandstone, dolomite, and shale, which
were crumpled into elongated mountains around 350 million years ago. The
mountains' erosional remnants are the present northeast-southwest-trending
ridges and intervening valleys. The ridges reach 799 m (2,620 ft) in elevation,
and the valleys descend to 195 m (640 ft). West of the Ridge and Valley,
the Cumberland Plateau varies in width from 80 to 113 km (50 to 70 mi)
and in height from 610 to 1,067 m (2,000 to 3,500 ft). Its limestone and
sandstone rocks have been deeply cut by streams, and most of the surface
is steeply sloped. A spectacular entrenchment about 7 km (4.5 mi) wide
and 113 to 129 km (70 to 80 mi) long called the Sequatchie valley occupies
the southeastern margin of the plateau.
The plateau drops off sharply to the west into the Nashville Basin. The
basin, a rolling, rocky, oval-shaped lowland, averages about 183 m (600
ft) in elevation. It extends approximately 129 km (80 mi) north-south
and 80 km (50 mi) east -west. It is surrounded by the Highland Rim, which,
with the basin, was eroded from the plateau surface. The Highland Rim
stands about 61 to 122 m (200 to 400 ft) higher than the basin and is
32 to 97 km (20 to 60 mi) wide. Most of the surface is gently to steeply
sloping.
Farther west is the coastal lowland of West Tennessee. The rocks there
are younger, and the surface more level, than any other region in the
state. In the northwestern part of Tennessee is Reelfoot Lake, a shallow
water body created in 1811-12 by the New Madrid earthquake.
Soils
Most of Tennessee's soils are thin and rocky, with deeper deposits occurring
in the plains of West Tennessee and in eastern valleys. The steeply sloping
areas are subject to heavy erosion and have low natural fertility. Near
the Mississippi River are thick deposits of loess.
Climate
Tennessee's climate is transitional between the long, hot summers and
mild winters farther south and the more severe winters and shorter summers
of the Middle West. January temperatures average 5 degrees C (41 degrees
F) in the west and 3 degrees C (37 degrees F) in the east. July temperatures
average 26 degrees C (79 degrees F) in the west and 25 degrees C (77 degrees
F) in the east. The eastern mountains receive more precipitation (1,270-1,525
mm/50-60 in) than any part of the continental United States but the Pacific
Northwest. Statewide precipitation averages 1,270 mm (50 in).
Rivers and Lakes
Drainage in much of the state is partially below the surface, because
the limestone rock layers are easily soluble and pocketed with underground
caverns. The Tennessee River and the Cumberland River both make wide loops
from Kentucky into Tennessee and back again, emptying into the Ohio River.
The rivers of West Tennessee drain directly into the Mississippi River.
Vegetation and Resources
About half of Tennessee is forested. East Tennessee contains a mix of
hardwoods and softwoods, whereas most other areas are dominated by hardwoods.
Cedar trees are prominent in the Nashville Basin. The once-abundant wildlife
is now strictly protected.
Stone, coal, zinc, sand, gravel, phosphate rock, copper, and clays are
the leading minerals by value. Barite, sulfur, and lime are also important,
but water is Tennessee's most highly developed resource. The Tennessee
Valley Authority (TVA) changed the Tennessee River and its major tributaries
from flood-prone streams into a series of quiet reservoirs behind concrete
and steel dams.
PEOPLE
Tennessee's overall population density is about 46 persons per sq km (118
per sq mi), with about two-thirds of the population in urban areas. Nashville
is the capital, and Memphis is the largest city. Other major cities are
Knoxville and Chattanooga.
Tennessee's rate of population growth has been below the national average
for most of the last 150 years. Although it has a reputation for high
birth rates and heavy out-migration, these trends have been reversed during
much of the post-World War II period. Birth rates have been below the
national average since about 1970, and positive net migration has contributed
to population growth. Densities of population are somewhat higher in East
than in Middle and West Tennessee, but population growth is highest in
the area bordering Nashville. The average age of about 33 is increasing,
which is consistent with national trends and the decline in birth rates.
Major causes of death are cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Blacks account for 16 percent of the population (1990), with heaviest
concentrations in the greater Memphis area. Most Tennesseans are of German,
Scot-Irish, or English extraction; a few are of French extraction. Religious
denominations with the largest memberships are Baptist, Churches of Christ,
Methodist, Presbyterian, and Church of the Nazarene.
Education
A statewide tax-supported school system was established in Tennessee in
1873. Not until 1909, however, was the program effectively funded. Prior
to 1873, education was provided by privately owned schools, usually controlled
by churches. The average person has completed approximately 12.5 years
of school, about the national average. The public school system is administered
by a commissioner of education, appointed by the governor for a 4-year
term. The commissioner heads the state department of education and makes
recommendations to the state board of education that has oversight responsibility
for the public kindergarten through 12th-grade system and the state's
vocational-technical schools.
Public higher education is administrated by a higher education commission,
which oversees the Board of Regents system of 6 regional universities,
12 community colleges, and 2 technical institutes. The University of Tennessee
system (see Tennessee, state universities of) operates on five campuses
and is administered by a Board of Trustees. The University of Tennessee
in Knoxville is the state's major research and land- grant university.
Memphis State University is the largest of the Board of Regents' institutions.
Among the privately supported institutions of higher education, eight
are located in Nashville and have helped to earn the city its title of
"Athens of the South." Vanderbilt University, in Nashville, and the University
of the South (see South, University of the), in Sewanee, are among the
more distinguished of the private universities.
The largest book collection in Tennessee is housed in the Joint Universities
Libraries (a pooling of collections from Vanderbilt University, Peabody
College, and Scarritt College) in Nashville. The second largest collection
is that of the University of Tennessee Libraries in Knoxville.
Cultural Attractions and Historic Sites
The military branch of the Tennessee State Museum is housed in the War
Memorial Building in Nashville. The American Museum of Science and Energy
in Oak Ridge contains a major collection of technology, and the Museum
of Appalachia in Norris houses a rich assemblage of Appalachian culture.
Major attractions in Memphis include the Beale Street historic district,
the Mississippi River Museum at Mud Island, and the Memphis home of Elvis
Presley. Nashville, home of the Grand Ole Opry, and the nation's center
for country and western music, is the site of the Country Music Hall of
Fame. The Parthenon in Nashville is an exact replica of the Greek Parthenon,
and was built in 1897 for the Tennessee Centennial. The Tennessee Aquarium
in Chattanooga is the world's largest aquarium featuring freshwater species.
Major attractions in Knoxville include the Knoxville Museum of Art, the
Frank H. McClung Museum, and the Blount Mansion (1792). The Alex Haley
House Museum in Henning is also a destination for visitors.
The Hermitage (Andrew Jackson's home near Nashville), the Andrew Johnson
National Historic Site in Greeneville, and the James K. Polk home in Columbia
honor Tennesseans who became U.S. presidents. Among other major historic
sites are the several Civil War battlefields at Lookout Mountain, Shiloh,
Chickamauga, and Murfreesboro.
Great Smoky Mountains National Park draws millions of visitors annually.
Pinson Mounds, near Jackson, has outstanding archaeological sites and
the remains of an Indian city, and Cumberland Gap National Historical
Park attracts visitors. The state also maintains state parks and recreation
areas.
Communications
There are 27 daily newspapers published in Tennessee as well as many weekly
newspapers. The Memphis Commercial Appeal has the largest circulation,
followed by the Nashville Tennessean, the Knoxville News-Sentinel, and
the Chattanooga News-Free Press. Numerous periodicals and much religious
literature are printed in the state, primarily in Nashville. More than
220 radio and 40 television stations serve the state, with nearly half
of the television stations in Nashville, Memphis, Chattanooga, and Knoxville.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
From its agricultural beginnings, Tennessee has become one of the nation's
leading industrial states. The economy is diversified, with manufacturing
and wholesale and retail trade accounting for about equal numbers of employees.
Services, lumped together, have the greatest number of employees and make
up about half of the gross state product. Manufacturing contributes about
25 percent of the gross state product, and trade makes up about 20 percent.
The Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the Tennessee Valley Authority,
headquartered primarily in Knoxville and Chattanooga, are major employers
of scientists and engineers as well as those with other skills. Although
its relative position in per-capita income has improved, Tennessee remains
below the national average.
Manufacturing
Tennessee ranks in the top 10 among the 50 states in percentage of its
labor force employed in manufacturing. The major industries include chemicals,
processed food, transportation equipment, industrial machinery and equipment,
electric and electronic equipment, fabricated metal products, rubber and
plastics, printing and publishing, and apparel. Two major automobile assembly
operations have been built near Smyrna (Nissan; opened 1980) and Spring
Hill (General Motors; opened 1990), just south of Nashville. Major manufacturing
centers are in Memphis, Nashville, Knoxville, Chattanooga, and the Tri-Cities
(Bristol-Kingsport-Johnson City) areas.
Agriculture
Tennessee's best agricultural lands are in the coastal lowlands near the
Mississippi River where the surface is level and soils are relatively
deep and fertile. Agriculture employs only a small percentage of the state's
labor force. Farm sizes average only about 59 ha (146 acres), compared
to the national average of 190 ha (470 acres). Livestock products ac-count
for more than half of all farm income, and cattle is the leading commodity.
Other major commodities are dairy products, soybeans, cotton, tobacco,
wheat, and corn. Breeding and training the famous Tennessee Walking Horse
is a significant industry in Middle Tennessee, and horses are also raised
in West Tennessee.
Mining, Forestry, and Fishing
Tennessee's major mineral resources are bituminous coal, stone, and zinc.
Tennessee ranks among the top four U.S. states in the production of zinc.
Small amounts of petroleum and natural gas are produced. Commercial timberland
is about 90 percent under private ownership. Hardwoods account for more
than 80 percent of the growing stock and 75 percent of the harvests. Commercial
fishing is of negligible importance, but sport fishing is enhanced by
the numerous lakes of the TVA and the U.S. Corps of Engineers, and by
mountain streams that are stocked with trout.
Energy
The giant Tennessee Valley Authority, an agency of the federal government,
generates nearly all of Tennessee's electrical power. Most of the power
is generated from coal-burning steam plants. The remainder comes from
hydroelectric generation and from nuclear power plants.
Transportation
Memphis, Nashville, Knoxville, and Chattanooga are major junction points
for an interstate highway network that spans more than 1,609 km (1,000
mi) in Tennessee. These cities also serve as rail-, water-, and air-transportation
centers. Tennessee has a total of nearly 136,795 km (85,000 mi) of highways
and about 4,025 km (2,500 mi) of railroad trackage, along with four major
airports. The Memphis airport, in addition to leading in passenger enplanements,
is the chief terminal for Federal Express and handles thousands of tons
of freight and mail annually. The Mississippi River, a major navigational
route, forms Tennessee's western border. The Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,
links Tennessee cities with ports on the Gulf of Mexico.
GOVERNMENT
Government in Tennessee operates under a constitution adopted in 1870
and amended several times. The governor is elected to a 4-year term and
may serve only two consecutive terms. The General Assembly consists of
a house of representatives with 99 members elected to 2-year terms and
a senate with 33 members elected to 4-year terms. Tennessee is divided
into 95 counties, with 94 county governmental units and more than 300
municipal governments. A metropolitan government has been adopted by Nashville-Davidson
County. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court. It has five justices
who serve 8-year terms.
Tennessee has long been divided politically--as well as socially and economically--between
east and west. East Tennessee is a Republican bastion, and West and Middle
Tennessee have historically been strongly Democratic. From Reconstruction
through the mid-1960s, Republicans usually won statewide elections only
when their Democratic rivals were split over a major issue. Since the
mid-1960s, however, Republicans appear to have gained strength. Some congressional
seats have regularly gone to Republicans during recent years, and the
governor's office has been occupied by members of both major parties.
Democrats continue to control both houses of the General Assembly, but
the Democratic majorities have declined during recent decades. Three Tennesseans
have served as U.S. president: Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, and Andrew
Johnson.
HISTORY
The earliest-known inhabitants of Tennessee were Mound Builders, and when
Europeans penetrated the area they found that these Indian groups were
still present. The Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto was the first European
to enter what is now Tennessee. He crossed the state and discovered (1541)
the Mississippi River near present-day Memphis. At that time the Cherokee
Indians inhabited East Tennessee; the Shawnee, Middle Tennessee--apparently
on Cherokee sufferance--and the Chickasaw, West Tennessee. The Chickasaw
did not cede West Tennessee until 1818.
Both France and England claimed parts of the territory during the 17th
and 18th centuries, but in 1763 the French relinquished all lands east
of the Mississippi to England, and permanent European settlement began.
In 1772 the settlers in a few isolated centers organized themselves into
the Watauga Association for protection and administration of justice.
Two leaders of this association were John Sevier and James Robertson,
who founded (1779) a community near present-day Nashville.
The Tennessee pioneers joined in the American Revolution, and forces led
by Sevier and Isaac Shelby were instrumental in winning the important
Battle of Kings Mountain (Oct. 7, 1780). The victory prevented the joining
of two British forces and hastened the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.
Following the Revolution and numerous skirmishes with the Cherokees for
control of the territory, the State of Franklin was formed (1784) in eastern
Tennessee out of land ceded by North Carolina to the federal government.
North Carolina refused to recognize the new state, however, and Sevier,
Franklin's governor, was arrested in 1788, and the new state collapsed.
North Carolina again ceded its western territory in 1789, and President
Washington commissioned (1790) William Blount governor of all U.S. territory
south of the Ohio River. On June 1, 1796, Tennessee became the 16th state;
Sevier was its first governor.
In the War of 1812, Tennessee supplied 28,000 troops and had more soldiers
than any other state in the Battle of New Orleans, won by native son Andrew
Jackson. Tennessee furnished most of the men and the commanders for the
ensuing Indian wars east of the Mississippi. Among the state's famous
volunteers were Davy Crockett, who died at the Alamo, and Gen. Sam Houston,
who became the first president of the Republic of Texas.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Tennessee was torn between the nearly
unanimous support of the Union in the abolitionist east and equally strong
support of the Confederacy in the slave -holding middle and west. As a
result Tennessee was the last Southern state to secede. Because of its
position as a border state, more battles of the Civil War were fought
on Tennessee territory than any other state except Virginia. After the
Union victory at Fort Donelson, Tennessee was placed under military rule,
with Andrew Johnson as military governor. After the war Tennessee was
the first Confederate state to be readmitted to the Union, but Reconstruction
proved to be a difficult period. With the election of Democrat John C.
Brown as governor in 1870, the Reconstruction period ended, and nearly
a century of Democratic domination of state politics began.
After the Civil War, agriculture made only a slow revival as the state's
economic mainstay, and the ongoing process of industrialization began.
In addition to the losses of the war, the population of Memphis was nearly
wiped out by a yellow fever epidemic in 1878.
The tiny town of Dayton became the center of national attention in 1925
when the famous Scopes Trial brought together William Jennings Bryan and
Clarence S. Darrow in a bitter lawsuit concerning the teaching of Darwin's
theory of evolution. The case was a test of a Tennessee statute (1925)
prohibiting the teaching of evolution (which offended religious fundamentalists)
in the state's public school system. The challenge was unsuccessful, and
the law was on the books until 1967.
Tennessean Cordell Hull served as secretary of state under President Franklin
Roosevelt and received the Nobel Peace Prize. Estes Kefauver, elected
from Tennessee to the U.S. Senate in 1948, became a leader in struggles
for civil rights and against organized crime. On Apr. 4, 1968, the city
of Memphis was the site of the assassination of the Rev. Martin Luther
King, Jr.
More recently, Tennesseans have continued to distinguish themselves nationally.
Howard Baker, a U.S. senator (1967-85), later served as chief of staff
for President Ronald Reagan, and former governor Lamar Alexander was secretary
of education in the George Bush administration. In 1992, Tennessee senator
Albert Gore, Jr., was elected U.S. vice-president.
Today Tennessee still has its traditional contrasts between the industrialized
east and the more agricultural west. These distinctions are now more a
source of strength than conflict, however. During the 1980s in-migration
to the state increased. Tennessee also profited in the 1980s and early
1990s from the introduction of Japanese and American motor-vehicle manufacturing
in the state.
Sidney R. Jumper
Bibliography:
HISTORY: Bergeron, Paul H., Paths of the Past: Tennessee, 1770-1970 (1979);
Corlew, Robert E., Tennessee (1981); Williams, S. C., Tennessee during
the Revolutionary War (1975); Weeks, T., and Womack, B., A History of
Tennessee, ed. by Sara Sims (1989).
LAND AND PEOPLE: Ash, S. V., Middle Tennessee Society Transformed, 1860-1870
(1987); Clark, J., Tennessee Hill Folk (1972); DeLorme Staff, Tennessee
Atlas and Gazetteer (1989); Federal Writers' Project, Tennessee (1939;
repr. 1989); Fullerton, R. O., and Ray, J. B., Tennessee (1977); Luther,
E. T., Our Restless Earth: The Geologic Regions of Tennessee (1977); Matthews,
E. M., Neighbor and Kin (1966).
POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT: Abernethy, T. P., From Frontier to Plantation
in Tennessee (1932; repr. 1979); Allen, Rodney F., and Bice, David A.,
Civics: The United States and Tennessee (1990); Greene, L. S., et al.,
Government in Tennessee, 4th ed. (1982); Majors, W. R., Change and Continuity
(1986).
(c) 1996 Grolier, Inc.
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