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Introduction
West Virginia, state of the eastern United States. West Virginia lies in the very heart of the Appalachian Highlands, and its predominantly mountainous terrain and picturesque scenery have led to its nickname as the Mountain State. The state's unusually irregular boundaries, formed largely by rivers and mountains, give it the shape of a large pan with two handles, one in the north and one in the east. For this reason it is sometimes called the Panhandle State. West Virginia is known for its magnificent scenery and its abundance of natural resources, including coal, oil, gas, and timber. It is one of the leading producers of bituminous coal among the states and is also noted for the manufacture of fine glass. West Virginia, plagued for many years by economic stagnation, has recently attempted to diversify its industrial activity. Yet the state remains one of the poorest in the United States. West Virginia entered the Union on June 20, 1863, as the 35th state. It was part of Virginia until the American Civil War (1861-1865), when its inhabitants, loyal to the Union, formed a separate state after Virginia became part of the Confederacy. Charleston is West Virginia's capital and largest city.
Physical Geography
West Virginia ranks 41st in size among the states, with a total area of 62,758 sq km (24,231 sq mi), including 376 sq km (145 sq mi) of inland water. The maximum distance from north to south is 380 km (236 mi); the maximum extent from east to west is 425 km (264 mi). Its mean elevation of 460 m (1,500 ft) above sea level makes West Virginia the highest state east of the Mississippi River. Elevations range from 73 m (240 ft), along the Potomac River in the northeast, to 1,482 m (4,861 ft), atop Spruce Knob in the east. Much of the land is mountainous. Flatlands are scarce, located mainly along the major river valleys.
Natural Regions
West Virginia lies within the general geographic region of the eastern United States known as the Appalachian Mountain System, which extends from Vermont to Alabama. Within the state are parts of two natural regions, or physiographic provinces: the Ridge and Valley province and the Appalachian Plateau. The Eastern Panhandle lies in the Ridge and Valley province of the Appalachian Mountains. Here, long parallel mountain ridges, running from northeast to southwest, are separated by narrow valleys. The ridges are heavily forested and rise to between 900 and 1,200 m (3,000 and 4,000 ft). Soils of the Ridge and Valley province are rich and are used for agriculture or as grazing land for livestock. Included in the province is the beautiful Shenandoah Valley, which embraces the extreme Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia. About one-sixth of West Virginia lies within this province. Immediately to the west of the Ridge and Valley province, and including about five-sixths of the area of West Virginia, is the Appalachian Plateau. The northern part of the boundary between the Ridge and Valley province and the Appalachian Plateau is marked by the rugged mountains of the Allegheny Front. Numerous peaks in the front, which includes Spruce Knob, exceed 1,200 m (4,000 ft) in elevation. To the west of the front, elevations average more than 300 m (1,000 ft). Here is located the Kanawha section of the plateau, which rises and falls irregularly across a succession of deep V-shaped river valleys that are separated by steep-sided upland areas. This section of West Virginia contains deposits of coal, oil, gas, salt, and iron ore.
Climate
The climate of West Virginia is characterized by warm humid summers and cold humid winters. However, the weather is subject to sudden changes at all seasons. The growing season ranges from less than 150 days along the northern border of the state to more than 190 days, principally in the south. Average January temperatures range from less than -2° C (28° F) near the Cheat River to more than 3° C (38° F) along sections of the border with Kentucky. July averages range from less than 20° C (68° F) along the North Branch of the Potomac to more than 24° C (76° F) in the western part of the state. It is cooler in the mountains than in the lowlands. Annual precipitation ranges from less than 810 mm (32 in) in the eastern lowlands to more than 1,400 mm (56 in) in higher parts of the Allegheny Front. Slightly more than half the rainfall occurs from April to September. Dense fogs are common in many valleys of the Kanawha section, especially the Tygart Valley. Snow usually lasts only a few days in the lowlands but may persist for weeks in the higher mountain areas. An average of 86 cm (34 in) of snow falls annually in Charleston, although during the winter of 1995-1996 more than three times that amount fell as several cities in the state established new records for snowfall.
Plant Life
Forests, mostly of hardwood varieties, cover 77 percent of West Virginia. The principal commercial species are the oak, yellow poplar, maple, birch, beech, black walnut, hickory, and gum. Softwoods include pines and hemlock firs. Flowering trees include the wild crab apple, dogwood, hawthorn, and redbud. Among the many flowering bushes and plants are the rhododendron, which is the state flower, the laurel, blueberry, hepatica, wild geranium, and black-eyed Susan. Insects and disease, mostly introduced from other continents, have done enormous damage to West Virginia trees. By 1926 a chestnut blight had killed most of the state's chestnut trees. Dutch elm disease attacked elm trees, and the oak wilt later did serious damage to oak trees. The gypsy moth has destroyed trees in an ever-expanding area. By setting aside timberlands and introducing new management techniques, however, both the federal and state governments have done much to conserve the forests. By the 1990s two plants, the Buffalo running clover, in Fayette and Webster counties, and the harperella, in Hardy County, were considered endangered.
Animal Life
When the state was a Native American hunting ground, buffalo, elk, bears, cougars, deer, and other large mammals, roamed the territory. Most of these large species have since disappeared from the state. However, deer are very numerous and black bear have increased in number in recent years. Conservation measures have insured the survival of many smaller animals, including beaver, otter, marten, raccoon, mink, skunks, opossums, squirrels, rabbit, bobcats, foxes, and groundhogs. The state's many birds include migratory grebe, loons, ducks, and geese. Herons and the American bittern fly up annually from the South. There are also plover, quail, woodcocks, snipes, and sandpipers and such predatory birds as owls, hawks, eagles, falcons, ospreys, and turkey vultures. Among the numerous songbirds are the cardinal, which is the state bird, and the wood thrush, brown thrasher, and scarlet tanager. Game fish include trout, bass, and pike in the mountain streams and in the rivers. There are two poisonous snakes, the timber rattlesnake and the copperhead, and 18 species of nonpoisonous snakes. Species of West Virginia animals that are threatened or endangered include the eastern cougar, the northern flying squirrel, the three-toothed land snail, two species of mussels found in the Kanawha and Ohio rivers, the Virginia big-eared bat, and the Indiana bat. Among the birds of West Virginia, the passenger pigeon, once so numerous that flocks broke down trees in which they roosted at night, is now extinct. The bald eagle and the peregrine falcon are threatened species.
Economic Activities
The economy of West Virginia is based mainly on manufacturing and mining. Agriculture is a supplementary source of income, and some lumber production is carried on. The state's early economic development was closely linked to the exploitation of its raw materials: coal, timber, and oil and natural gas. In the last decades of the 19th century and into the 20th century the production of the extractive industries reached its peak. Manufacturing began to grow rapidly early in the 20th century and, stimulated by World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945), became the leading element in the state's economy. In the second half of the 20th century, the coal industry rapidly mechanized and surface mining increased. These changes, together with the shift made by many consumers from coal to oil, led to severe unemployment among coal miners. By the mid-1960s unemployment had dropped considerably, largely through the migration of workers from the state. However, West Virginia continued to be plagued by pockets of severe poverty and underdevelopment. In 1999, 817,000 people held jobs in West Virginia. Employment in the state's traditionally strong sectors of mining and manufacturing declined during the 1980s and early 1990s, while the number of jobs in the service industries grew. By 1997 services, which includes such positions as restaurant workers and those catering to tourists, employed 28 percent of jobholders. Another 22 percent worked in wholesale or retail trade; 17 percent in federal, state, or local government, including those in the military; 10 percent in manufacturing; 6 percent in construction; 5 percent in transportation or public utilities; 5 percent in finance, insurance, or real estate; 3 percent in mining; and 3 percent in farming (including agricultural services), forestry, or fishing. In 1998, 13 percent of West Virginia's workers were members of a labor union.
Population Patterns
In the 1990 federal census, West Virginia ranked 34th in the nation in population. It had 1,793,477 inhabitants, 8 percent less than in 1980, although in the 1990s the population was again growing. The estimated population in 1999 was 1,806,928, giving the state a population density of 29 persons per sq km (75 per sq mi). West Virginia is among the second least urbanized states, with only 36 percent of its inhabitants living in cities or towns.
Principal Cities
The four largest cities of West Virginia lost population at a greater rate than the state as a whole during the 1980s, showing a combined decrease of more than 14 percent by 1990. The largest city is Charleston, the state capital, with a population (1998 estimate) of 55,056. Located at the confluence of the Kanawha and Elk rivers, it is the center of a highly industrialized region that includes South Charleston. Huntington, a center of industry and trade with 52,571 inhabitants, is a transportation hub on the Ohio River near the mouth of the Big Sandy River. Wheeling (32,541) is, together with Weirton, a center of iron and steel manufacturing located in the Northern Panhandle. Parkersburg (31,715), on the Ohio River at the mouth of the Little Kanawha River, developed during the oil boom of the late 19th century and has grown as a manufacturing center. Morgantown, Fairmont, and Clarksburg are shipping centers for coal, but also have some manufacturing. Morgantown is also the seat of West Virginia University. Beckley and Bluefield are centers of the southern coalfields. The pioneer stock of West Virginia was largely Scots-Irish, German, and English. There were also a few blacks. Many settlers before the American Civil War lived in isolated mountainous sections. Cut off from surrounding regions, they retained customs and speech patterns that sometimes dated from England during the time of Queen Elizabeth I. After the Civil War, many blacks left the South for jobs in the coal mines of West Virginia. The coal, lumber, and manufacturing industries also drew immigrants from Italy, Poland, Hungary, and Germany. At the time of the 1990 federal census whites constituted 96.2 percent of the population, blacks 3.1 percent, Asians and Pacific Islanders 0.4 percent, Native Americans 0.2 percent, and those of a mixed heritage or not reporting ethnicity 0.1 percent. Hispanics, who can be of any race, are 0.4 percent of the people.
Education
The early schools in West Virginia were financed by subscription, with the exception of a few schools supported by various religious organizations. In 1863 the state constitution established a free public school system. A new constitution, passed in 1872, made provision for a system supported by state funds. At that time, state funds were also appropriated for teacher training in normal schools. In 1890 the West Virginia legislature approved a plan for the grading of rural schools, known as the Wade Plan, which gained wide acceptance in rural schools throughout the country. Until state aid for high schools began in 1908, private academies were responsible for secondary education in the state. The 20th century has seen the consolidation of rural schools and the general upgrading of education, particularly vocational education. The state system of public education is supervised by a state board of education and a state superintendent of schools. School attendance in West Virginia is compulsory for all children age 6 to 16. Of those children, 6 percent attend private schools. In the 1995-1996 school year West Virginia spent $6,325 on each student's education, compared to a national average of$6,146. There were 14.6 students for every teacher (the national norm was 17.1 students). Of those older than 25 years of age in 1998, 76.4 percent had a high school diploma, compared to the national average of 82.8 percent.
Higher Education
West Virginia has 18 public and 19 private institutions of higher learning. Those with extensive graduate programs are West Virginia University (founded 1867), in Morgantown; Marshall University (1837), in Huntington; and the West Virginia Graduate College (1976), in South Charleston. Public colleges which emphasize baccalaureate degree programs include Fairmont State College (1865), in Fairmont; Glenville State College (1872), in Glenville; Concord College (1872), in Athens; Shepherd College (1871), in Shepherdstown; and West Liberty State College (1837), in West Liberty. All opened initially as state normal schools. West Virginia Institute of Technology (1895), in Montgomery, and Potomac State College (1901), in Keyser, were established as preparatory branches of West Virginia University. In 1996, after a century as a separate degree-granting college, West Virginia Tech became West Virginia University Institute of Technology. Potomac State continues as a two-year branch of West Virginia University. West Virginia State College (1891), in Institute, and Bluefield State College (1895), in Bluefield, were established as black colleges and remained so until after the United States Supreme Court mandated school desegregation in 1954. In the early 1970s the state legislature established several independent community colleges. Bethany College (1840), in Bethany, is West Virginia's oldest private college. Other major private colleges include West Virginia Wesleyan (1890), in Buckhannon; University of Charleston (1888), in Charleston; Davis & Elkins College (1904), in Elkins; Salem-Teikyo University (1888), in Salem; Alderson-Broaddus College (1931), in Philippi; Wheeling Jesuit College (1954), in Wheeling; Ohio Valley College (1960), in Parkersburg; Appalachian Bible College (1950), in Bradley; and The College of West Virginia (1933), in Beckley. The state-supported universities and their component colleges and medical schools are administered by the West Virginia Board of Trustees; most four-year and two-year state-supported colleges are administered by the West Virginia Board of Directors. Both boards have 17 members who serve six-year overlapping terms. Each of the boards appoints its own chancellor, or chief administrative officer.
Recreation and Places of Interest
West Virginia's beautiful mountain areas afford fine recreational opportunities. Favorite sports include fishing and hunting. The state also has winter sports areas for skiing, tobogganing, and ice skating. Mineral springs, principally those at White Sulphur Springs and Berkeley Springs, have attracted visitors since colonial times.
Annual Events
Music is always a feature for festivals in West Virginia. Each August, Lewisburg hosts the West Virginia State Fair which includes traditional events as well as live music. The West Virginia State Folk Festival, in Glenville, and Summersville's Bluegrass Country Music Festival draw music lovers from all around in the summer months. Daredevils and spectators attend the October Bridge Day celebration at the New River Gorge. While parachute jumpers and rappellers fling themselves over the bridge's sides, visitors can enjoy entertainment, food, and crafts on the world's longest steel arch bridge. Civil War Weekend at Summersville is celebrated with a reenactment of the Battle of Carnifex Ferry and living history demonstrations. Meanwhile, in early June troops muster in Philippi to commemorate the first land battle of the Civil War. Fort New Salem Heritage Workshops, held each summer at Salem, feature blacksmithing, textile work, hearth cooking, and other skills from the pioneer period. Festivals recognizing the role of immigrants in West Virginia include the Italian Heritage Festival, in Clarksburg, and the Helvetia Community Fair, both in September. Two popular events held in Charleston each year are the Vandalia Gathering, celebrating the state's multiple heritages, during the Memorial Day holiday, and the Charleston Sternwheel Regatta, held during the Labor Day holiday.
Government
West Virginia's first constitution was adopted in 1863, at the time of statehood. A second constitution went into effect in 1872. Amendments to the constitution may be proposed in either house of the state legislature and must initially be approved by two-thirds of the membership of each house. To be adopted, they must then be approved by a majority of those voting on the amendments at a special election or the next general election. The legislature, with the approval of the electorate, may call conventions to make extensive revisions of the constitution. All of the revisions proposed by such conventions are subject to ratification by the people. The state's chief executive, the governor, is elected for a four-year term. The governor may be reelected any number of times, but may only serve two terms consecutively. The governor appoints many officials with the approval of the state senate and may veto laws or individual items of appropriations passed by the state legislature. The governor also has the chief responsibility for drafting the annual budget for consideration by the legislature. Other elected executive officials are the secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney general, and commissioner of agriculture. All are elected for four-year terms and may be elected for successive terms. There is no lieutenant governor in West Virginia. If a vacancy occurs in the governorship, it is filled by the president of the state senate, who retains the position until a gubernatorial election can be held. In 1999, Cecil Underwood, a Republican, was governor. West Virginia's state legislature consists of a 34-member Senate and a 100-member House of Delegates. State senators are elected for four-year terms, and delegates are elected for two-year terms. The legislature convenes annually on the second Wednesday in January. Regular sessions are limited to 60 days. Following each gubernatorial election, the legislature convenes briefly in January in order to organize. It then recesses until the second Wednesday in February, when the session begins. A two-thirds vote in each house is required to extend regular sessions. Special sessions may be called by three-fifths of the membership or by the governor. The legislature can override the governor's veto by a majority vote in both houses. West Virginia has a unified court system consisting of three levels. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Appeals, with five justices, who are elected for 12-year terms. While most of the cases heard by the Supreme Court are appeals from lower courts, it can give original consideration to some cases. It also has the power of judicial review and can rule on whether actions of the executive and legislative branches of government are constitutional. The major trial courts of the state are circuit courts. Each circuit serves from one to four counties. The number of judges in each circuit varies from one to seven depending on the size of the population served. Circuit courts have both original and appellate jurisdiction. Major crimes, which may be punished by long prison sentences, must be tried in circuit courts. Circuit judges are elected for terms of eight years, and each circuit court must meet three times a year in each county on the circuit. At the lowest level are magistrate and municipal courts. Magistrates, elected to four-year terms, may decide civil suits involving no more than $2,000 and have no appellate function. Civil suits involving less than $100 must be tried in magistrate courts. Municipal courts can be established by any city, town, or village with its own government. In small towns municipal courts often deal with minor offenses such as traffic violations. The state also has family law masters, appointed by the governor, who deal with family matters such as divorce, child adoption, and child-support payments. The chief governing body in each of West Virginia's 55 counties is the county commission. Each commission is composed of three commissioners, who are elected for six-year terms. Commissioners perform both administrative and judicial functions. Other elected county officials include the sheriff, who serves as the county treasurer, as well as the chief law enforcement officer, and the prosecuting attorney, assessor, circuit clerk, county clerk, and surveyor of lands. All are elected for four-year terms. Most municipalities, including all towns and villages in the state, have the mayor and council form of government. Some cities have a combined council and manager form of government. West Virginia elects two U.S. senators. As a result of the 1990 census, the number of seats allotted to West Virginia in the U.S. House of Representatives dropped from four to three; the number had earlier been decreased based on the result of the 1970 census. West Virginia now has five electoral votes in presidential elections.
Late 20th Century Political and Economic Affairs
In contrast to the past, control of the executive branch of government in West Virginia regularly shifted between Democrats and Republicans after 1968. In that year Arch A. Moore, Jr., a popular six-term Republican congressman, won the governorship. Two years later, voters approved the Governor's Succession Amendment to the state constitution, which allowed a governor to serve two consecutive terms and unlimited nonconsecutive terms. In 1972 Moore defeated his Democratic rival, John D. Rockefeller IV, becoming the first two-term governor of the state in 100 years. In 1976 Rockefeller became governor by defeating former Governor Cecil H. Underwood, his Republican opponent. Four years later, Rockefeller was elected to a second term with a victory over Moore. The election created great attention, and Rockefeller reportedly spent about $11 million of his personal fortune in retaining the office. Moore remained highly popular and was elected to a third term in 1984, when Rockefeller was elected to the U.S. Senate. In 1988, however, W. Gaston Caperton, III, a Democratic newcomer to politics, also spent heavily and ended Moore's hopes for a fourth term. Caperton was reelected in 1992. Underwood became governor again in 1996 when he defeated Democrat Charlotte Pritt. The state's best-known political figure is Robert C. Byrd, who was first elected to the U.S. Senate in 1958 and later became Democratic majority leader (1977-1981; 1987-1988). From the 1970s to the 1990s, parts of West Virginia faced depressed economic conditions similar to those of the 1950s. When Moore began his third term as governor in 1985, the unemployment rate in the state was 15 percent, the highest in the nation, and the population was again declining. In an effort to improve the economic conditions, a much-disliked Business and Occupations Tax was removed on all businesses except utilities, and coal company contributions to the workers' compensation fund were reduced. More importantly, tax credits were extended to new industries coming into the state and to existing industries that expanded their number of jobs or modernized their operations. The total tax credits to businesses amounted to $48 million a year at that time. Unfortunately, coal companies, which received the largest share of the benefits, actually cut the number of their employees by 1,650. The management of the tax credit system was found to be corrupt, with the result that Governor Moore and several high-ranking officials were convicted of extortion, bribery, or other offenses and sentenced to prison terms. Moore was sentenced in 1990 to five years and 10 months in prison.
"West Virginia," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2000 http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2000 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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