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Introduction
Wisconsin, state in the north central United States, bordered by Lake Superior on the north, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan on the northeast, Lake Michigan on the east, Illinois on the south, and Iowa and Minnesota on the west. Wisconsin received its name from the Wisconsin River, the name of which is derived from the French version of an Ojibwa term that may mean "gathering of the waters" or "place of the beaver." It is customarily known as the Badger State because the miners who were among the first settlers in the region lived in mine shafts or dug their homes out of the hillside and lived underground, as badgers do. Madison is the capital of Wisconsin. Milwaukee is the largest city. Wisconsin entered the Union on May 29, 1848, as the 30th state. It is one of the leading states in agriculture. Especially noted for its cheese production, the state is sometimes called the Cheese Capital of the Nation or America's Dairyland. The greater part of the state is composed of rolling plains that yield productive crops and fodder for the dairy industry. Wisconsin also has substantial heavy industry, centered around Milwaukee and nearby cities along the shore of Lake Michigan. In Wisconsin at the beginning of the 20th century, Robert La Follette and the Progressives evolved their theories of good government in close collaboration with leading scholars at the University of Wisconsin. Roughly half a century later, Wisconsin Senator Joseph R. McCarthy stirred deep controversy among Americans with his views on Communism and how to eradicate it in the United States.
Physical Geography
Wisconsin ranks 22nd in size among the states. It covers 169,642 sq km (65,499 sq mi), including 4,742 sq km (1,831 square miles sq mi) of inland water. Also under jurisdiction of the state is 24,229 sq km (9,355 sq mi) of waters in lakes Michigan and Superior. Wisconsin is roughly rectangular in shape, except for the Door Peninsula, which is about 130 km (about 80 mi) long and separates Green Bay from Lake Michigan. Wisconsin has a maximum length from north to south of about 480 km (about 300 mi) and a width from east to west of about 450 km (about 280 mi).
Natural Regions
Wisconsin is customarily divided into two major natural regions, or physiographic provinces, each of which is a part of one of the broader physiographic divisions of North America. The two natural regions are the Central Lowland and the Superior Upland. The Central Lowland, which is a part of the larger physiographic division known as the Interior Plains, covers southern Wisconsin. The Superior Upland, a southward extension of the Canadian Shield, or Laurentian Upland, occupies northern Wisconsin. The Central Lowland is the larger of the two natural regions. It is a predominantly low-lying area and swings in a broad belt across the southern two-thirds of the state. Over the eastern part of the region the underlying rocks have been covered by thick deposits of glacial clays and sands known as till, or drift. Most of this glaciated area is referred to as the Eastern Lake section of the Central Lowland, but a small area in the south is a continuation of the Till Plains, a section that covers adjoining areas of Illinois. During the Ice Age, which ended about 10,000 years ago, a number of ice sheets pushed southward across Wisconsin and adjoining areas. These ice sheets planed off the hills of the preglacial landscape, filled up the ancient valleys, and created the fairly smooth plain that now covers most of the southeast. The unglaciated Wisconsin Driftless section of the southwest is believed to look the way the rest of the Central Lowland looked before the Ice Age. Some sections, especially those south of the Wisconsin River, are quite rocky, steep, and rugged, but most land is only moderately hilly and is suitable for farming. Among the more prominent features are the Military Ridge, Blue Mounds, and Baraboo Range, which provide sweeping views of the countryside. Unusual for this part of the country are the steep-sided, flat-topped hills found in the vicinity of Camp Douglas that are similar in appearance to the mesas and buttes of the arid Western states. The Superior Upland occupies northern Wisconsin and is underlain by ancient and very hard rocks. The region is higher than the Central Lowland and for this reason is sometimes referred to as the Northern Highland. Most of its hills are from 400 to 430 m (1,300 to 1,400 ft) above sea level. Several isolated peaks rise considerably above this level, however. They include Timms Hill, which at 595 m (1,951 ft) is the highest point in Wisconsin, and Sugarbush Hill, Rib Mountain, and the Gogebic, or Penokee, Range. Forests cover much of the Superior Upland, and there are numerous small lakes of glacial origin. A low-lying and partially swampy plain, known as the Lake Superior Lowland, occupies the areas along the southern shore of Lake Superior.
Climate
Wisconsin has a humid continental climate. Winters are long and cold throughout the state. Summers are short and fairly hot, especially in southern Wisconsin. The waters of lakes Superior and Michigan modify the climate of the coastal areas to a noticeable extent. These areas are generally milder in winter and cooler in summer than interior sections of the state. Average July temperatures range from more than 22° C (72° F) in the southwest to less than 19° C (66° F) in some northern areas. Daytime temperatures are seldom much higher than 32° C (90° F), and cool weather is not unusual. Summer nights are generally cool, and July temperatures have been known to dip to the freezing point in northern areas. January averages fall below freezing throughout Wisconsin. They range from less than -12° C (less than 10° F) in the interior northern areas to -6° C (22° F) in the southeast, along the Lake Michigan shore. During winter extremely cold weather persists for several weeks at a time. Average annual precipitation ranges from 700 to 800 mm (28 to 32 in). Rainfall is generally heaviest during the spring and summer, and snowfall is generally moderate in the south, but can be quite heavy in the north. Thunderstorms, sometimes accompanied by devastating tornadoes, are common in spring and summer, particularly in the southern part of the state. The growing season ranges from less than 90 days in some areas of the north to more than 160 days along parts of the Lake Michigan shore. Land situated within about 3 km (about 2 mi) of Lake Superior has an extended frost-free period averaging 114 days.
Plant Life
Extensive forests once covered most of the state. They now cover 44 percent of the state's land area. Most forest land in Wisconsin is privately owned. Northern Wisconsin is covered by forests of northern hardwoods mixed with conifers. Around the beginning of the 20th century, young pioneer species of hardwoods replaced the stands of white pines destroyed by deforestation in the l9th century. The aspen and birch are the two most common trees in these second-growth forests, with sugar maple (the state tree) also appearing. Other trees in the northern forests are the white pine, red pine, jack pine, basswood, spruce, hemlock, and red maple. Shrubs of the area include the blueberry, raspberry, beaked hazel, chokecherry, bog rosemary, and red-berried elder. The hardwood forests of southern Wisconsin are dominated by red and white oaks, hickories, maples, and basswoods. Beeches occur in the extreme east of the state. Characteristic shrubs in the southern forests are the chokecherry, dogwood, Juneberry, poison ivy, staghorn sumac, and prickly ash.
Animal Life
Wisconsin's animal populations have endured many changes in the past century. The black bear is once again growing in number, while the resident population of timber wolves remains on the state's endangered list. The Canada lynx, an infrequent visitor to Wisconsin, is also on the list of endangered species. Elk have been reintroduced to the northwestern portion of the state, as have the fisher and pine marten in the northern forested areas. Among the mammals found throughout Wisconsin are the white-tailed deer, muskrat, woodchuck, red fox, coyote, skunk, raccoon, mink, otter, beaver, cottontail, flying squirrel, and gray squirrel. Mammals found in some parts of Wisconsin include the badger, opossum, gray fox, porcupine, and snowshoe hare. Wisconsin lies on the Mississippi Flyway, one of the migratory paths followed by millions of birds each spring and fall. Among the waterfowl commonly seen in Wisconsin during the migrations are Canada geese and several species of wild ducks. Horicon Marsh, in south central Wisconsin, is a major stopover for migrating waterfowl. Upland game birds include the ring-necked pheasant, Hungarian partridge, sharp-tailed grouse, bobwhite, ruffed grouse, and woodcock. Hawks and owls are common, and wild turkeys have made a remarkable comeback in recent years. The Wisconsin River is known for its sizable population of bald eagles. Songbirds include the robin, the state bird, and juncos, house finches, English sparrows, nuthatches, cardinals, blue jays, bluebirds, tufted titmice, red-winged blackbirds, western meadowlarks, and prothonotary warblers. Also found in the state are flickers; hairy, downy, and red-headed woodpeckers; yellow-bellied sapsuckers; crows; and ravens. The cedar waxwing summers in the state. Among the popular game fish are the muskellunge, northern pike, walleye, lake trout, largemouth and smallmouth bass, perch, bullhead, and crappie. The lake sturgeon and shovelnose sturgeon were once abundant but have become quite rare in Wisconsin waters, along with the true paddlefish, which is now protected.
Economic Activities
Herds of dairy cows grazing Wisconsin's green pasturelands are the foundation of a dairy industry that produces a large part of the nation's butter and cheese. The output of such farms has earned Wisconsin the nickname America's Dairyland; and over the years, dairying and crop farming have been vital parts of Wisconsin's economy. The state's rich forests have also generated a lumber and paper industry, while extensive water resources have been important for fishing and transportation. The water, forest, and farms combine to give the state a natural beauty, which in turn has made the state a popular destination for tourists. Meanwhile, manufacturing grew rapidly in the 20th century, becoming a dominant segment of the state's economy. In 1997, 3,268,100 people held jobs in Wisconsin. As in much of the country, the nature of employment is changing in the state. By 1993 employment on farms had decreased 26 percent from ten years before, while manufacturing employment grew 17 percent in the same period. But service occupations, such as nursing, restaurant serving, and computer programming, are showing the largest gains. Service occupations in 1997 employed 27 percent of the workers; 22 percent worked in wholesale or retail trade; 19 percent in manufacturing; 12 percent in federal, state, or local government, including those in the military; 7 percent in finance, insurance, or real estate; 5 percent in construction, 4 percent in transportation or public utilities; and 4 percent in farming (including agricultural services), forestry, or fishing; Only 0 percent worked in mining. In 1997, 19 percent of Wisconsin's workers were unionized.
The People of Wisconsin
According to the 1990 national census, Wisconsin ranked 16th among the states, with a total population of 4,891,769. This figure represented an increase of 4 percent over the 1980 census figure. Urban growth has begun to outpace rural increases, and in 1990 some 66 percent of the people lived in urban areas. However, while most urban areas are growing, the city of Milwaukee proper continues a loss of population begun in the 1970s. This occurred even as growth in the city's surrounding suburban area pushed the total metropolitan population ahead. Estimated population in the state for 1998 was 5,223,500. The average population density is 37 persons per sq km (96 per sq mi); most of the northern third of the state, however, has a much lower population density. Whites represented the largest ethnic group in Wisconsin, with 92.3 percent of the population. Blacks constituted 5 percent, while Asians and Pacific Islanders were 1.1 percent, Native Americans were 0.8 percent, and those of mixed or not reporting a racial heritage were 0.8 percent of the total. The largest Native American tribes are the Chippewa and Menominee. There are six Native American reservations in northern Wisconsin. Hispanics, which are of any race, represent 1.8 percent of the population. The state was known as a recipient of massive European immigration during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Festive culture across the state still reflects the diverse origins of the population.
Principal Cities
Milwaukee, a major Great Lakes port and industrial center, is Wisconsin's largest city, a leading producer of both beer and machinery, and the historic home of large German and Polish populations, which give it a European flavor. The Milwaukee metropolitan area had an estimated population of 1,451,000 inhabitants in 1997. Madison, the state capital, as well as a university city, had an estimated 398,000 inhabitants in the metropolitan area in 1997. Other major cities include Racine, a Lake Michigan port and industrial city; West Allis, an industrial satellite of Milwaukee; and Kenosha, a port and industrial city on Lake Michigan. Green Bay, on an arm of Lake Michigan, is Wisconsin's oldest city. Superior shares the great port facilities at the western terminus of Lake Superior with Duluth, Minnesota. A single metropolitan area centers on the two cities.
Education
The first free elementary school in what is now Wisconsin was founded at Southport (now Kenosha) in 1845, and the first free high school was established in the same community four years later. In 1856 Margaretta Schurz, the wife of the political reformer Carl Schurz, established the first kindergarten in the United States, in Watertown. The first statewide vocational and adult-education network in the nation was established in Wisconsin in 1911. By the early 20th century the public education system of Wisconsin had been well developed. School attendance is compulsory for children from ages 6 to 18, or upon graduation from high school. Of the state's children, 17 percent attend private schools, one of the higher rates in the country. In the 1994-1995 school year Wisconsin spent $6,930 on each student's education, compared to a national average of about $5,988. There were 15.8 students for every teacher (the national average was 17.3). Of those older than 25 years of age in the state, 88 percent had a high school diploma. The national norm was 83 percent.
Higher Education
The first institution of higher education in the state was Milton College, in Milton, founded in 1844. In 1996 Wisconsin had 30 public and 36 private institutions of higher learning. By far the largest institution was the University of Wisconsin system, with 13 university campuses, including the main campus at Madison (founded in 1849), Milwaukee (1955), Eau Claire (1916), and Oshkosh (1871) (see Wisconsin-Madison, University of). Other schools include Marquette University (1881) and Mount Mary College (1913), in Milwaukee; Lawrence University (1847), in Appleton; Beloit College (1846), in Beloit; Ripon College (1851), in Ripon; and Carroll College (1846), in Waukesha.
Recreation and Places of Interest
Wisconsin's many fine recreational facilities and beautiful scenery are enjoyed by thousands of vacationers and outdoor enthusiasts each year. Numerous state forests and parks exist throughout the state, with lakes for water sports and campgrounds, picnic sites, and nature trails. In addition, there are streams, rivers and the Great Lakes for fishing, as well as numerous state canoe trails. Wisconsin's abundant wildlife provides hunting enthusiasts with a wide variety of game. Numerous places of historical interest throughout the state are noted by official state markers.
Annual Events
Syttende Mai, held at Blue Mounds and at Stoughton on May 17, celebrates Norway's Independence Day. An annual Wilhelm Tell Pageant is staged every Labor Day weekend at New Glarus. Milwaukee hosts the annual Great Circus Parade, featuring restored 19th-century wagons, and Summerfest on the Lake Michigan lakefront every July. Also in July are the Oneida Indians Pow-Wow, held in Green Bay, and the Lumberjack World Championships in Hayward. The city of La Crosse hosts an annual Oktoberfest celebration in October, and Oshkosh is the site of the annual Experimental Aircraft Association Fly-In Convention every August. West Allis is the site of Wisconsin's State Fair, which is held every August.
Government
Wisconsin still uses the constitution it adopted at the time of statehood in 1848. It is one of the oldest state constitutions. An amendment to the constitution may be proposed by the legislature or by a constitutional convention. To be ratified, an amendment must be approved by a majority of people voting on the issue in a general election. The state's chief executive, the governor, is elected for a four-year term. Other elected executive officials in the state are the lieutenant governor, secretary of state, attorney general, and state treasurer. All of the elected officials serve four-year terms. In 1998 Tommy G. Thompson, a Republican, was governor. The Wisconsin legislature consists of a Senate of 33 members and an Assembly of 99 members. Senators are elected for four-year terms, and representatives are elected for two-year terms. Regular sessions of the legislature are held annually. Special legislative sessions may be called by the governor or by a majority of the legislators. The highest state court in Wisconsin is the Supreme Court. Most of its work consists in hearing appeals from lower state courts. The court is made up of seven justices, who are elected for ten-year terms. The justice with the longest service on the state supreme court serves as its chief justice. The major trial courts in the state are circuit courts. The decisions of the circuit courts may be appealed to the state court of appeals. Both the circuit court judges and the judges of the court of appeals are elected for six-year terms. The state also has municipal courts, whose justices are elected for four-year terms. All judges are elected on a nonpartisan basis. Each of Wisconsin's 72 counties is governed by a board of supervisors elected for a two-year term. Following a Wisconsin Supreme Court decision in 1965, these boards have been elected on the basis of population, rather than area. Other elected county officials include the clerk, treasurer, sheriff, clerk of the circuit court, registrar of deeds, coroner, surveyor, and district attorney. All are elected for two-year terms. In the early 1990s Wisconsin had 188 incorporated cities and 397 incorporated villages. Each of the more than 1,200 towns, which are civil subdivisions of counties and similar to townships in other states, is governed by a board consisting of a chairperson and two to four supervisors. All are elected for two-year terms. The cities are governed under the mayor and city council or council and city manager form of municipal government. Villages in Wisconsin are governed by elected supervisors. Wisconsin has two U.S. senators and nine seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. The state has 11 electoral votes.
Economic Development After World War II
World War II (1939-1945) stimulated the state's economy and helped it recover from the depression. Southeastern manufacturing cities with a skilled labor force, especially Milwaukee, readily converted to war production. In the 1950s and 1960s Wisconsin continued to fare well economically as both its agriculture and industry prospered. The opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in 1959 allowed some oceangoing vessels to reach state ports, but the amount of such traffic was not as large as expected. Wisconsin's economy began to weaken in the 1970s. Smaller markets for milk, changes in eating habits, and the costly mechanization of milk production seriously affected the dairy industry. The number of dairy farmers dropped sharply, while the size of their farms and production costs rose. The traditional family farm that had long dominated rural Wisconsin and had possessed economic, political, and social power almost disappeared. A much sharper setback occurred in the state's manufacturing industries, located in Milwaukee, along the Lake Michigan shore, in the Fox, Rock, Chippewa, and Wisconsin river valleys, and on the Mississippi. Workers were laid off as some businesses became more automated or changed to new processes, producing more with fewer and more highly skilled workers. Large industrial employers began to relocate to the suburbs, the southern United States, and abroad. Some major firms reduced their Wisconsin operations, and the state's largest employer, the Allis-Chalmers Company, which built machinery, closed. Some industries survived but lost their previous prominence. Breweries, for example, had once existed in 100 of the state's cities, and Milwaukee had been a major influence on the national market for beer. By the 1990s brewing had been reduced to one major brewery (Miller) and many microbreweries.
Postwar Political Developments
Wisconsin became a Republican state before the Civil War. After 1904 the direct primary allowed the Progressives to split the Republican Party between Progressive Republicans and Stalwarts. Progressive Republicans dominated Wisconsin politics for many years. A resurgence of the Democratic Party began in the late 1940s, and in 1958 a Democrat, Gaylord Nelson, was elected governor, the first Democratic governor since 1932. Since then competition between the two parties has been greater than ever before in state history. In 1964, for the first time since 1892, the Democratic Party won all statewide offices and control of both houses of the legislature. In 1994 the Republicans resumed legislative control. The governor's office has been split almost evenly between the two parties since 1959, and on the whole governors have been moderates. In recent decades most state issues have not been clearly partisan, and most voting blocs have not been fixed. Republicans reflect the views of business and professional people and the suburbs, while the Democrats represent labor and the cities. Both have areas of strength in rural and farm areas, with Republicans stronger among the wealthier farmers, but each party needs support from unpredictable independent voters to win. The most persistent issues, ones often crossing party lines, have involved taxes and state financial aid. Since the Progressive Era, the state had used the graduated personal and corporate income tax it pioneered in 1911 and an inheritance tax, while local government depended on property taxes. After World War II, state spending grew, requiring more revenue, and a selective state sales tax was adopted. The income and sales taxes produced enough money that the state became more generous, with a variety of state aid programs for local governments that depended largely on property taxes. By the 1980s, as local governments were pressed to expand commitments, bipartisan support grew for property tax relief. In the mid-1990s the legislature approved a measure pledging that the state would cover two-thirds of the overall cost of local education, beginning in 1997. Starting in the Progressive Era and the 1930s, the state has had a reputation for high taxes, heavy spending, and regulation of business. Since about 1970 the trend has been reversed by efforts to hold down or reduce the cost of government; to turn some government functions, such as auto-emission testing, over to private contractors; to reduce the regulatory role of the state; and to involve the state directly in economic expansion through tax changes, subsidies, and an aggressive search for business expansion. The legislature has also expanded the concept of Cabinet government to widen the governor's role in such economic intervention, a contrast to the state's Progressive tradition of strong, independent state agencies. Other major issues have included welfare reform, gun control, abortion restrictions, and control of crime and drugs. Republican Governor Tommy Thompson, elected to a third term in 1994, has advocated major changes in welfare that have attracted national attention. From 1987 to 1995, under Thompson's administration, Wisconsin's welfare rolls were cut significantly, and programs were established to link parents' welfare grants to their children's school attendance. In 1996 Wisconsin passed a law aimed at ending welfare and putting recipients to work. The law would abolish welfare payments by late 1997 but create a system of programs to help residents find jobs and assist them with child care, transportation, and housing. Wisconsin was the first state to ratify the women's suffrage amendment to the Constitution of the United States in 1919, but women's rise to political prominence has lagged. By the mid-1990s no woman had yet been elected governor, U.S. senator or representative, or mayor of a major Wisconsin city, although many women served in the state legislature, on local legislative bodies, and as mayors of smaller municipalities. Women have held major non-elective positions in state and federal service, in the universities, and as chief executives of several major Wisconsin corporations. State higher education in the first half of the 20th century was limited to the University of Wisconsin in Madison and a system of ten state teachers colleges. The university gained a national reputation for the social and natural sciences and for two extension systems serving the public statewide. Changes beginning in 1951 led to a merger creating the University of Wisconsin system in 1971, with 13 major campuses and about 150,000 students governed by a single board of regents.
"Wisconsin," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2000 http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2000 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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